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    Organophosphate ester (OPEs) flame retardants and plasticizers in air and soil from a highly industrialized city in Turkey
    (Elsevier Science Bv, 2018) Kurt Karakuş, Perihan Binnur; Alegria, Henry; Birgül, Aşkın; Gungormus, Elif; Jantunen, Liisa
    Passive air samples were collected at eight sites in Bursa, Turkey during five sampling periods between February-December 2014. Locations encompassed urban, suburban, industrial, rural and background environments. Soil samples (n = 8) were collected at each site during February 2014. Six OPEs were detected in samples: tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), tris(chloropropyl) phosphate (TCPP), triphenyl phosphate (TPHP), tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBOEP), tris(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate (TEHP), and tris(2-isopropylphenyl) phosphate (T2-iPPP). Frequency of detection in air samples was TCPP and TPHP (100%) > TBOEP (88%) > TCEP (85%) > TEHP (78%) > T2iPPP (20%). Total OPEs in air per site by sampling period (excluding non-detects) ranged from 529 to 19,139 pg/m(3). In soil, total OPEs ranged from 38 to 468 ng/g dw. In air, alkylated OPEs dominated followed by halogenated and aryl OPEs. In air, annual mean concentrations were TBOEP > TCPP > TPHP > T2iPPP > TEHP > TCEP. In soils, alkylated OPEs were dominant at six sites and chlorinated OPEs at two sites. A comparison of OPE profiles between air and soil suggests that soils may be partly a source of OPEs to air. Mean concentrations in air were not directly proportional to temperature, and there were differences between alkylated compared to halogenated and aryl OPEs. In air, total and alkylated OPEs levels were fairly uniform, whereas more variability was found for the halogenated and aryl compounds. The relative contribution to total OPEs decreases for alkylated OPEs and increases for halogenated OPEs in samples going from background to suburban to urban and industrial sites. Levels of individual OPEs were all positively correlated between air and soils. In air, correlations between individual compounds were weak to moderate and were only statistically significant for TBOEP and TPHP. In soils, correlations were generally stronger and statistically significant only for TPHP and T2iPPP. (C) 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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    Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and alternative ?ame retardants (NFRs) in indoor and outdoor air and indoor dust from Istanbul-Turkey: Levels and an assessment of human exposure
    (2017) Kurt Karakuş, Perihan Binnur; Alegria, Henry; Jantunen, Liisa; Birgül, Aşkın; Topcu, Aslinur; Jones, Kevin C.; Turgut, Cafer
    Levels of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and novel brominated ?ame retardants (NFRs) were measured in ambient outdoor air, indoor air and indoor dust collected in homes and of?ces at urban, semi-urban and rural locations in Istanbul, Turkey. Indoor air levels of S12PBDEs in homes and of?ces ranged from 36 to 730 pg/m3 and 160 to 10 100 pg/m3, respectively, while levels of S12NFRs ranged from 180 to 7600 pg/m3 and 180 to 42 400 pg/m3, respectively. Outdoor air levels ranged from 110 to 620 pg/ m3 for S12PBDEs and 750 to 2800 pg/m3 for S12NFRs. I/O ratios that are greater than 1 suggest that air concentrations detected in indoor environments are mainly from indoor sources. Indoor dust levels in homes and of?ces of S12PBDEs ranged from 400 to 12 500 ng/g and 330 to 32 200 ng/g respectively and levels of S12NFRs ranged from 320 to 31 400 ng/g and 910 to 97 900 ng/g, respectively. The I/O ratios >1 for PBDEs and NFRs may indicate that emissions of these chemicals detected in homes and of?ces are mainly from indoor sources. Due to childrens' frequent hand-to-mouth behaviour, lower body weight and increased dust ingestion rate compared to adults, exposure rates to target chemicals for children were greater than those of adults. Based on median concentrations of chemicals of interest in dust and air samples from Istanbul, we estimate that exposure rates of children to PBDEs and NFRs are up to 160 times higher compared to adults but none of the estimated exposure rates results for children or adults were than the recommended daily oral reference dose values of certain analytes.